Factors Affecting Animal Growth

Factors Affecting Animal developmentModern kine ar descendants of Bos indicus and Bos Taurus (Gillespie, 1992). fit in to Lawrie (1991) these breeds be believed to be descended from Bos primigenius, the wild cattle. The last re bewilderative of the wild species died in Poland in 1627 (Zeuner, 1963). Lawrie (1991) report that domestication of cattle followed the establishment of settled agriculture ab protrude 5000 B.C. and domestication of hump-back cattle (Bos indicus) existed in Mesopotamia by 4500 B.C.Garner (1944) say that the immediate predecessor of majority of the breeds of British cattle was Bos longifrons, which was of relatively small frame instead than Bos primigenius which is massive in size. The development of many subject British breeds was collectible to the atrial auriclely goods initiated by Bakewell in the middle of the eighteenth speed of light, who introduced in- re resultion, the use of proven sires, survival and culling (Lawrie, 1991). Since 1790, th e focus on cattle improvement is towards smaller, younger and leaner animal(prenominal)s and there has been growing realization that breed potentialities will not be to the full manifested without adequate food given at the right time in the growth pattern of the animal (Hammond, 1932a).Lawrie (1991) suggested that a beef animal should be well covered with phase, blocky and compact-thus reducing the proportion of deck up whereas in a d send outy animal the frame should be angular with relatively little flesh cover, the body should be cylindrical thus accommodating the walloping remain firmive tract necessary for efficacious conversion of food into milk and mammary tissue should be markedly developed. Aberdeen Angus has been regarded as the necropsy breed for good-quality heart (Gerrard, 1951).Lawrie (1991) describe that one of the reasons for the good eating quality of the Aberdeen Angus is its tenderness which is due to the small size of the muscle bundles, smaller anima ls having smaller bundles. Good-quality content can as well be deliver the goods by establishing concentrates much(prenominal)(prenominal) as barley to beef cattle (Preston et al., 1963).Efforts have been do to hybridize diverse breeds of Bos indicus (Zebu cattle) with British breeds, to combine the heat resisting properties of the former with the kernel-producing characteristics of the latter (Lawrie, 1991).Unfortunately, unusual breeds of cattle atomic number 18 found within a normal breed dwarf Snorter cattle occur within various breeds in U.S.A., and pronounced muscular hypertrophy, which is often more noticeable in the hind quarters and explains the attend doppelender given to the condition, arises in several breeds e.g. Charollais and South Devon (McKellar, 1960). Recessive genes are thought to be responsible in both cases (Lawrie, 1991).FACTORS AFFECTING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CATTLELawrie (1991) inform that as an animal grows two things turn over first, it increases in weight until mature size is reached this is called growth and secondly it changes in its body conformation, conformations and its various functions and faculties come along into full being this is referred to as development.Genetic factorsAccording to Lawrie (1991) several economically serious traits in shopping center animals are heritable to roughly course and can thus be selected for by breeding. In cattle, definite growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding. One such trait is dwarfism another is the doppelender or double muscling condition, which originators muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases the animals commercial abide by (Lawrie and Ledward, 2006). Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, with it, meat growth and quality as concluded by Lawrie and Ledward (2006).Genetic engineering techniques can sho rten breeding programmes significantly be go they allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for want traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into the animal genome as reported by Lawrie and Ledward. Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. The multiple asexual reproductions of animals bearing desirable traits can thus be anticipated, although this is not withal practical on a commercial scale.Environmental FactorsHeat regulation in livestock curiously cattle is of great economic significance, because mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature (Lawrie and Ledward, 2006). measly temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to retard it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature adjustment and others (e.g. cattle) a broad one. Static magnetic fields, for reasons still unknown, also retard animal development.Nutritional FactorsAcker and Cunningham (1991) reported that the quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animals plane of nutrition, i.e., whether it is over or downst standard pressures supply. The composition of the diet, curiously the amount of protein provided, is also an important factor regulating animal growth and development (Wardlaw, 2000). Cattle digest cellulose which is better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess, because producing high-quality protein animal feed is expensive.Several techniques are utilize or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen, the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the disassociateial conversion of petrole um hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action (Gillespie, 1998).In plant feed, environmental factors influence the availability of crucial nutrients or micronutrients, a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. In Australia, for instance, where the soil contains limited phosphate, cattle are being fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in current areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture this was at space found to be a result of cobalt deficiency in the soi (Acker and Cunningham, 1991).Gillespie (1998) stated that plant toxins are also a risk to grazing animals for instance, fluoracetate, found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the cellular metabolism. Certain man-made pollutants such as methyl mercury and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard due to their tendency to bioaccumulate in meat, potentially poisonin g consumers.SLAUGHTERING AND KILLING OF CATTLESlaughtering unearthly tanningingThe Welfare of Animals (Slaughter or Killing) Regulations 1995 (as amended) (WASK) require that all animals are stunned before slaughter, using the methods of arresting decreed by the Regulations, subject to specific exemptions. One of these exemptions refers to slaughter without the infliction of unnecessary suffering by the Judaic method for the food of Jews or by the Muslim method for the food of Muslims, provided the requirements for the licensing of slaughter men under the Regulations are met. Since a complete bleed is necessary, cattle are not stunned before eject (Donin, 1972).Religious issues surrounding slaughter without pre- stupefy were explored in detail in the FAWC report on religious slaughter published in 1985 and have not been reiterated in this report. Council has taken account of relevant information generated since accordingly in drawing its conclusions.Jewish methodThe Jewish met hod of slaughtering animals for food (Shechita) requires that they be wellnessy at the time of slaughter and must not have suffered any physical injury. For this reason, pre-slaughter stunning methods that are judged to cause physical injuries prior to cutting the throat have been considered un acceptable for this slaughter method. Cattle are reticent in an upright position in a specialized pen with the head held fast and the recognize chance upond in a fitted position for incision of the throat.A transverse cut is made using a reciprocal, uninterrupted motion of the knife. The intention is to produce an immediate outpouring of demarcation by severing both jugular veins and both carotid arteries. The knife used for cattle has a long, passing sharp and undamaged blade. After the cut has been made the animal must remain restrained until it is bled out before being released, shackled and hoisted. With Rabbinical approval some premises have adopted a post-cut stun for cattle.The I slamic methodThe Muslim method of slaughter (Halal) is, in many respects, similar to Shechita. However, pre-slaughter stunning methods for cattle and sheep that have been demonstrated not to kill the animal, such that the heart is still beating, have been deemed acceptable and have routinely been adopted in many Halal slaughterhouses. The level of restraint required to expose the throat, perform an effective cut and hold the animal still until it has bled out is greater than is needed for established slaughter.The restraining pens used for this purpose require Ministerial approval. This is functioned to protect bovine animals from any avoidable pain, suffering, agitation, injuries or contusions in the pen and in particular to ensure effective means of restraint and support (WASK). The design and operation of restraining pens are assessed by the SVS before Ministerial approval is given.Humane slaughteringCattle are slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out) . Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. arresting can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide, shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol, or shocking them with electric current as reported by Lawrie and Ledward (2006).According to Lawrie (1991) draining as much blood as possible from the body is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a very good breeding ground for microorganisms. The exsanguination is arrant(a) by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior nervure cava in pigs.BleedingAccording to Beinempaka et al., (1990) the neck of the animal is cut and it is allowed to bleed by hoisting it up. They also reported that adequate bleeding is essential to reduce meat despoliation since blood is a good generator of moisture and nutrition for approximately of the pestiferous organisms.This indicates that the amou nt of blood retained in the beef determines the degree of spoilage of the beef. Panda, (1986) reported that the amount of blood drained out from different types of birds vary depending on the stunning technique and physiological condition of the cattle.Deskinning and dressingThis process of deskinning is do manual of armsly or mechanical and manual at the same time. The mechanical and manual ones are normally done at the abattoirs. This involves using a sharp knife to deskin the animal while the machine pulls the skin off the animal.Dressing involves the opening of the trunk to remove the internal organs (Beinempaka et al., 1990). Care must be taken in removing the intestines, as an unintentional incision may result in the distribution of fecal bacterium onto form possibly contaminating the beef (Borch and Arinder, 2002).WashingFollowing the deskinning and dressing stage is the washing stage. It involves using a stream of water supply which removes dirt and the amount of blood retained in the carcass. This helps in reducing microbial load present on the carcass.ChillingThis is done immediately after the preparation of the carcass and must last for as short a time as possible to avoid bacterial proliferation (Gracey, 1986).Nester et al., (2001) stated that dismay inhibits the growth of micro-organisms such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp at temperature below 3-50C. Chilling in a common john may result in cross-contamination from Escherichia and Salmonella carriers to free carcasses (Cross et al., 1988).NUTRITIVE VALUE OF rushThe use of lean and reasonably beef is advisable to include in diet, it could be as an ingredient in stews or traditional recipes. yell is a popular meat rich in protein, being a red meat had always made it a bad food when it comes to studies and researches (Owen et al., 2005). Wardlaw, (2000) stated that, a lean beef adds to wellness benefits related to heart and prevention of cancer. As a matter of fact, no one can reje ct that beef is an important source of protein.Beef is found to be very rich in Iron, Zinc, Selenium, Phosphorus, super C and Magnesium. Sodium and Copper are found in good quantities. However, minute quantities of Calcium and Manganese are also present. According to Acker and Cunningham (1991), beef is one of the best sources for Vitamin B12, Vitamin B6 Niacin and Riboflavin. However, it is also rich in thiamin and Pantothenic Acid. Small amounts of Vitamin E, Vitamin K and Foliate are present.According to Owen et al., (2005) the calorie count of Beef per 100 gm is 155.0 it is meat which is higher in protein and moderate in fat. Beef is good for bones and teeth. It enhances immunity against infections of ear etc., and prevents blood vessel walls from damaging. Moderate consumption of lean beef is altogether good for cardiovascular health and to prevent cancer risks.The amount of fat in beef carcasses has decreased compared to what it was during the middle of the twentieth century beef contains about 6 percent less fat (Gillespie, 1998).FRESHNESS OF DRESSED BEEFBeef is a perishable product and may cause public health concerns. Fresh beef is most likely to spoil before it will cause food-borne diseases (Gill, 1998). For preserved meat the opposite may be the case, where micro-organisms have been eliminated.There is the tendency to use milder saving methods either because of energy saving, because of consumers preference for mildly elderly or cooked products, or their desire for having more fresh beef products or because of an aversion to the use of preservatives (Panda, 1995).According to Lawrie and Ledward (2006) in order to satisfy these demands, it will be necessary for meat industry to improve microbial monitoring of production including hygiene and to formulate processes which will give minimal variation in their results. Although intense work is being carried out by meat industries to find substitutes for known processes with equivalent inactivation or inhibition of microbial froth, no overall acceptable alternative seems to be readily available (Gracey, 1986). tint OF BEEFThe quality grades are based on the degree of marbling (intramuscular fat) in the beef, and the maturity of the animal at slaughter (USDA, 2007). A quality grade is a composite evaluation of factors that affect palatableness of meat tenderness, juiciness, and flavor. These factors include carcass maturity, firmness, texture, and color of lean, and the amount and distribution of marbling within the lean. Beef carcass quality grading is based on degree of marbling and degree of maturity (Hale et al., 2007).Texture amount from less tender cuts or older cattle can be mechanically tenderized by forcing small, sharp blades through the cuts to disrupt the proteins (Denver, 2003). Also, solvings of exogenous proteolytic enzymes such as papain, bromelin or ficin can be injected to augment the endogenous enzymes (USDA, 2007). Similarly, solutions of salt and sodium ph osphates can be injected to soften and swell the myofibrillar proteins. This improves juiciness and tenderness. whole stepEvaporation concentrates the remaining proteins and increases flavor intensity the molds can land a nut-like flavor. The majority of the tenderizing effect occurs in the first 10 days, although two to three days allow significant effects. Boxed beef, stored and distributed in nihility furtherance, is, in effect, wet aged during distribution. Premium steakhouses dry age for 21 to 28 days or wet age up to 45 days for maximum effect on flavor and tenderness.. common salt can improve the flavor, but phosphate can contribute a soapy flavor.SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF BEEFLawrie (1991) suggested that contamination of beef is a continuing possibility from the molybdenum of bleeding until consumption. Contamination of beef from the moment of bleeding until consumption is from microbial to physical contamination. The microbiological contamination of carcasses occurs mainly during processing and manipulation, such as skinning, evisceration, depot and distribution at slaughterhouses and retail establishments (Gill, 1998 Abdalla et al., 2009).Fecal matter was a major source of contamination and could reached carcasses through contain deposition, as well as by indirect contact through colly and clean-cut carcasses, equipment, workers, installations and air (Borch and Arinder, 2002). Cattle slaughter operations, such as bleeding, dressing and evisceration, expose sterile muscle to microbiological contaminants that were present on the skin, the digestive tract and in the environment (Gill and Jones, 1999 Bacon et al.,2000).Moreover, dirty workers hands, clothes and equipments of the slaughterhouse and at the trade by retailers act as intermediate sources of contamination of meat (Gill, 1998 Gilmour et al., 2004 AbdelSadig, 2006 Abdalla et al., 2009).Also, handling and storage of beef contribute effectively to meat contamination (Beinempaka et al ., 1990). The storage place should be clean and preferably frigorific (400F). every temperature above will contribute to microbial growth which act on the meat and cause spoilage whereas the beef must be handled with proper care.METHODS OF MINIMIZING CONTAMINATION OF BEEFRangaswani (1983) reported that meat quality could be enhanced and prolonged when the causes of microbial contamination are drastically reduced or removed altogether. He stated further that quality and wholesomeness of meat depend on many factors of which the following are partSource of BeefMeat from abattoir slaughtered animals and well established farms generally have less bacteria counts than meat from backyard slaughtered animals because at the abattoir or farm, all the necessary safety and hygiene consideration are undertaken. The level of infection is thus minimized opposed backyard slaughtered animals where animals are killed and dressed on the floor with no better hygiene condition (Zeigler, 1966).Health o f AnimalsBeef from healthy animals keep longer than beef from morbid cattle. This is so because beef from healthy animals are more likely to be free from any microbes unlike diseased cattle. Zeigler (1966) reported that veterinary inspection should be the priority when animals are being slaughtered since it will be proven whether animals are free from any diseases.Method of SlaughterMeat from bruised animals, improperly bled animals, meat contaminated with faeces during evisceration and meat soiled with dirt from skin tends to spoil early.The normal micro botany from the skin of carcasses includes Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli and organisms of fecal origin (Cross and Overby, 1988). The source of these organisms is not clearly understood but in addition to contamination from the skin and intestines, equipments and tools during slaughter and selling of beef may be responsible for some contamination. To avoid further contamination, potable water should be used for rinsing carcasses and surfaces coming into contact with meat and offal.PRESERVATION OF BEEFAccording to Panda (1995) preservation or meat can be done by adopting several techniques among which are refrigeration, evaporation, curing, smoking, canning, irradiation, microwave heating and use of chemical additives including antibiotics.RefrigerationRefrigeration includes cold storage and arctic storage. In cold storage a temperature between 00C to 70C is employed and in frozen storage at between 150C to 170C (Panda, 1995). Controlled temperature assists in preventing quality loss and maintaining shelf life of the product. Proper air circulation in addition to maintenance of air temperature prevents mould growth and controlled air composition provides fresh air and avoids development of extraneous odour out of undesirable gases. Moisture control assists in preventing excessive dehydration of the product stored (Panda, 1986).SmokingSmoking helps in preserving beef by acting a s an antioxidant, bactericidal divisor and providing a protective covering on the surface. Smoking also imparts specific flavour to meat. Various types of forestwind instrument used for generating smoke also impart different flavour to the finished product. However, the best type of wood which could be exploited for producing quality smoke-cured beef is hard wood. Smoke also influences the colour of the smoked beef.CuringThis is a process of preserving meat. It is done to preserve and maintain red colour of the meat and also to add flavour. This ingredients used include common salt, sodium nitrate or nitrite, sugar and spices (Beinempaka et al., 1990). Therefore selection of curing formulation is extremely important while using it, as long as large amounts of salt or spice will mask the flavour of meat. The functions of these curing agents are different. Salts assists in preservation of meat while influencing the flavour and texture. Sugar adds to the flavour while checking the d rying and toughening effect and nitrate provide the desired pink colour to it (Panda, 1995).Chemical AdditivesGill (1998) stated that fresh beef in intact carcass is not severely contaminated except for its surfaces and skinning. However, as it is minced for utilization in further processed products, the solution changes. As the beef gets exposed, added bacterial contamination from hands of operators and machineries used occurs (Borch and Arinder, 2002). According to Panda (1995) the use of additives in beef extends the life of the beef and has a little effect on the colour, flavour and texture.PACKAGING AND terminusIf the beef is to be used for processing, then it is taken straight to the meat cutting and industries to be processed. If they are to be stored for use at a later stage, these are properly packed in suitable polythene bags and kept inside a deep freeze maintained at 15-180C. Panda (1995) reported that the packaging material used for packaging the beef should be colourl ess, transparent and of adequate strength to shelter the dressed beef packed during handling and transportation.Also, the packaging material should not transfer any subtle substances to the packed material. The major objectives in using the packaging material is that it should provide optimum protection to the product packed inside it and to maintain wholesomeness for its anticipated shelf life, while preventing physical, microbial and insect damage with detach properties and capacity to preserve its nutritive value in an acceptable way and other quality factors, important in the marketing channel (Panda, 1995).Various types of primary and secondary containers as well as tensile material are being used for packing beef products. Primary container is one which is in direct contact with the food item. The secondary container is the outer box or wrap that holds the primary units of food such as jars, cans, tins flexible packages which have no direct contact with the food item. Some of the various types of packaging material used for beef packaging include tins, cans, glass, plastic films and laminates.